root/trunk/man/files.texi

@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2000,
@c   2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Files, Buffers, Keyboard Macros, Top
@chapter File Handling
@cindex files

  The operating system stores data permanently in named @dfn{files}, so
most of the text you edit with Emacs comes from a file and is ultimately
stored in a file.

  To edit a file, you must tell Emacs to read the file and prepare a
buffer containing a copy of the file's text.  This is called
@dfn{visiting} the file.  Editing commands apply directly to text in the
buffer; that is, to the copy inside Emacs.  Your changes appear in the
file itself only when you @dfn{save} the buffer back into the file.

  In addition to visiting and saving files, Emacs can delete, copy,
rename, and append to files, keep multiple versions of them, and operate
on file directories.

@menu
* File Names::          How to type and edit file-name arguments.
* Visiting::            Visiting a file prepares Emacs to edit the file.
* Saving::              Saving makes your changes permanent.
* Reverting::           Reverting cancels all the changes not saved.
@ifnottex
* Autorevert::          Auto Reverting non-file buffers.
@end ifnottex
* Auto Save::           Auto Save periodically protects against loss of data.
* File Aliases::        Handling multiple names for one file.
* Version Control::     Version control systems (RCS, CVS and SCCS).
* Directories::         Creating, deleting, and listing file directories.
* Comparing Files::     Finding where two files differ.
* Diff Mode::           Mode for editing file differences.
* Misc File Ops::       Other things you can do on files.
* Compressed Files::    Accessing compressed files.
* File Archives::       Operating on tar, zip, jar etc. archive files.
* Remote Files::        Accessing files on other sites.
* Quoted File Names::   Quoting special characters in file names.
* File Name Cache::     Completion against a list of files you often use.
* File Conveniences::   Convenience Features for Finding Files.
* Filesets::            Handling sets of files.
@end menu

@node File Names
@section File Names
@cindex file names

  Most Emacs commands that operate on a file require you to specify the
file name.  (Saving and reverting are exceptions; the buffer knows which
file name to use for them.)  You enter the file name using the
minibuffer (@pxref{Minibuffer}).  @dfn{Completion} is available
(@pxref{Completion}) to make it easier to specify long file names.  When
completing file names, Emacs ignores those whose file-name extensions
appear in the variable @code{completion-ignored-extensions}; see
@ref{Completion Options}.

  For most operations, there is a @dfn{default file name} which is used
if you type just @key{RET} to enter an empty argument.  Normally the
default file name is the name of the file visited in the current buffer;
this makes it easy to operate on that file with any of the Emacs file
commands.

@vindex default-directory
  Each buffer has a default directory which is normally the same as the
directory of the file visited in that buffer.  When you enter a file
name without a directory, the default directory is used.  If you specify
a directory in a relative fashion, with a name that does not start with
a slash, it is interpreted with respect to the default directory.  The
default directory is kept in the variable @code{default-directory},
which has a separate value in every buffer.

@findex cd
@findex pwd
  The command @kbd{M-x pwd} displays the current buffer's default
directory, and the command @kbd{M-x cd} sets it (to a value read using
the minibuffer).  A buffer's default directory changes only when the
@code{cd} command is used.  A file-visiting buffer's default directory
is initialized to the directory of the file it visits.  If you create
a buffer with @kbd{C-x b}, its default directory is copied from that
of the buffer that was current at the time.

  For example, if the default file name is @file{/u/rms/gnu/gnu.tasks}
then the default directory is normally @file{/u/rms/gnu/}.  If you
type just @samp{foo}, which does not specify a directory, it is short
for @file{/u/rms/gnu/foo}.  @samp{../.login} would stand for
@file{/u/rms/.login}.  @samp{new/foo} would stand for the file name
@file{/u/rms/gnu/new/foo}.

@vindex insert-default-directory
  The default directory actually appears in the minibuffer when the
minibuffer becomes active to read a file name.  This serves two
purposes: it @emph{shows} you what the default is, so that you can type
a relative file name and know with certainty what it will mean, and it
allows you to @emph{edit} the default to specify a different directory.
This insertion of the default directory is inhibited if the variable
@code{insert-default-directory} is set to @code{nil}.

  Note that it is legitimate to type an absolute file name after you
enter the minibuffer, ignoring the presence of the default directory
name as part of the text.  The final minibuffer contents may look
invalid, but that is not so.  For example, if the minibuffer starts out
with @samp{/usr/tmp/} and you add @samp{/x1/rms/foo}, you get
@samp{/usr/tmp//x1/rms/foo}; but Emacs ignores everything through the
first slash in the double slash; the result is @samp{/x1/rms/foo}.
@xref{Minibuffer File}.

@cindex home directory shorthand
  You can use @file{~/} in a file name to mean your home directory,
or @file{~@var{user-id}/} to mean the home directory of a user whose
login name is @code{user-id}@footnote{
On MS-Windows and MS-DOS systems, where a user doesn't have a home
directory, Emacs replaces @file{~/} with the value of the
environment variable @code{HOME}; see @ref{General Variables}.  On
these systems, the @file{~@var{user-id}/} construct is supported only
for the current user, i.e., only if @var{user-id} is the current
user's login name.}.

@cindex environment variables in file names
@cindex expansion of environment variables
@cindex @code{$} in file names
  @anchor{File Names with $}@samp{$} in a file name is used to
substitute an environment variable.  The environment variable name
consists of all the alphanumeric characters after the @samp{$};
alternatively, it can be enclosed in braces after the @samp{$}.  For
example, if you have used the shell command @command{export
FOO=rms/hacks} to set up an environment variable named @env{FOO}, then
you can use @file{/u/$FOO/test.c} or @file{/u/$@{FOO@}/test.c} as an
abbreviation for @file{/u/rms/hacks/test.c}.  If the environment
variable is not defined, no substitution occurs: @file{/u/$notdefined}
stands for itself (assuming the environment variable @env{notdefined}
is not defined).

  Note that shell commands to set environment variables affect Emacs
only when done before Emacs is started.

  To access a file with @samp{$} in its name, if the @samp{$} causes
expansion, type @samp{$$}.  This pair is converted to a single
@samp{$} at the same time as variable substitution is performed for a
single @samp{$}.  Alternatively, quote the whole file name with
@samp{/:} (@pxref{Quoted File Names}).  File names which begin with a
literal @samp{~} should also be quoted with @samp{/:}.

@findex substitute-in-file-name
  The Lisp function that performs the @samp{$}-substitution is called
@code{substitute-in-file-name}.  The substitution is performed only on
file names read as such using the minibuffer.

  You can include non-@acronym{ASCII} characters in file names if you set the
variable @code{file-name-coding-system} to a non-@code{nil} value.
@xref{File Name Coding}.

@node Visiting
@section Visiting Files
@cindex visiting files
@cindex open file

@table @kbd
@item C-x C-f
Visit a file (@code{find-file}).
@item C-x C-r
Visit a file for viewing, without allowing changes to it
(@code{find-file-read-only}).
@item C-x C-v
Visit a different file instead of the one visited last
(@code{find-alternate-file}).
@item C-x 4 f
Visit a file, in another window (@code{find-file-other-window}).  Don't
alter what is displayed in the selected window.
@item C-x 5 f
Visit a file, in a new frame (@code{find-file-other-frame}).  Don't
alter what is displayed in the selected frame.
@item M-x find-file-literally
Visit a file with no conversion of the contents.
@end table

@cindex files, visiting and saving
@cindex saving files
  @dfn{Visiting} a file means reading its contents into an Emacs
buffer so you can edit them.  Emacs makes a new buffer for each file
that you visit.  We often say that this buffer ``is visiting'' that
file, or that the buffer's ``visited file'' is that file.  Emacs
constructs the buffer name from the file name by throwing away the
directory, keeping just the name proper.  For example, a file named
@file{/usr/rms/emacs.tex} would get a buffer named @samp{emacs.tex}.
If there is already a buffer with that name, Emacs constructs a unique
name---the normal method is to append @samp{<2>}, @samp{<3>}, and so
on, but you can select other methods (@pxref{Uniquify}).

  Each window's mode line shows the name of the buffer that is being displayed
in that window, so you can always tell what buffer you are editing.

  The changes you make with editing commands are made in the Emacs
buffer.  They do not take effect in the file that you visited, or any
permanent place, until you @dfn{save} the buffer.  Saving the buffer
means that Emacs writes the current contents of the buffer into its
visited file.  @xref{Saving}.

@cindex modified (buffer)
  If a buffer contains changes that have not been saved, we say the
buffer is @dfn{modified}.  This is important because it implies that
some changes will be lost if the buffer is not saved.  The mode line
displays two stars near the left margin to indicate that the buffer is
modified.

@kindex C-x C-f
@findex find-file
  To visit a file, use the command @kbd{C-x C-f} (@code{find-file}).  Follow
the command with the name of the file you wish to visit, terminated by a
@key{RET}.

  The file name is read using the minibuffer (@pxref{Minibuffer}), with
defaulting and completion in the standard manner (@pxref{File Names}).
While in the minibuffer, you can abort @kbd{C-x C-f} by typing
@kbd{C-g}.  File-name completion ignores certain file names; for more
about this, see @ref{Completion Options}.

  Your confirmation that @kbd{C-x C-f} has completed successfully is
the appearance of new text on the screen and a new buffer name in the
mode line.  If the specified file does not exist and you could not
create it, or exists but you can't read it, then you get an error,
with an error message displayed in the echo area.

  If you visit a file that is already in Emacs, @kbd{C-x C-f} does not make
another copy.  It selects the existing buffer containing that file.
However, before doing so, it checks whether the file itself has changed
since you visited or saved it last.  If the file has changed, Emacs offers
to reread it.

@vindex large-file-warning-threshold
@cindex maximum buffer size exceeded, error message
  If you try to visit a file larger than
@code{large-file-warning-threshold} (the default is 10000000, which is
about 10 megabytes), Emacs will ask you for confirmation first.  You
can answer @kbd{y} to proceed with visiting the file.  Note, however,
that Emacs cannot visit files that are larger than the maximum Emacs
buffer size, which is around 256 megabytes on 32-bit machines
(@pxref{Buffers}).  If you try, Emacs will display an error message
saying that the maximum buffer size has been exceeded.

@cindex file selection dialog
  On graphical displays there are two additional methods for
visiting files.  Firstly, when Emacs is built with a suitable GUI
toolkit, commands invoked with the mouse (by clicking on the menu bar
or tool bar) use the toolkit's standard File Selection dialog instead
of prompting for the file name in the minibuffer.  On Unix and
GNU/Linux platforms, Emacs does that when built with GTK, LessTif, and
Motif toolkits; on MS-Windows and Mac, the GUI version does that by default.
For information on how to customize this, see @ref{Dialog Boxes}.

  Secondly, Emacs supports ``drag and drop''; dropping a file into an
ordinary Emacs window visits the file using that window.  However,
dropping a file into a window displaying a Dired buffer moves or
copies the file into the displayed directory.  For details, see
@ref{Drag and Drop}, and @ref{Misc Dired Features}.

@cindex creating files
  What if you want to create a new file?  Just visit it.  Emacs displays
@samp{(New file)} in the echo area, but in other respects behaves as if
you had visited an existing empty file.  If you make any changes and
save them, the file is created.

  Emacs recognizes from the contents of a file which end-of-line
convention it uses to separate lines---newline (used on GNU/Linux and
on Unix), carriage-return linefeed (used on Microsoft systems), or
just carriage-return (used on the Macintosh)---and automatically
converts the contents to the normal Emacs convention, which is that
the newline character separates lines.  This is a part of the general
feature of coding system conversion (@pxref{Coding Systems}), and
makes it possible to edit files imported from different operating
systems with equal convenience.  If you change the text and save the
file, Emacs performs the inverse conversion, changing newlines back
into carriage-return linefeed or just carriage-return if appropriate.

@vindex find-file-run-dired
  If the file you specify is actually a directory, @kbd{C-x C-f} invokes
Dired, the Emacs directory browser, so that you can ``edit'' the contents
of the directory (@pxref{Dired}).  Dired is a convenient way to view, delete,
or operate on the files in the directory.  However, if the variable
@code{find-file-run-dired} is @code{nil}, then it is an error to try
to visit a directory.

  Files which are actually collections of other files, or @dfn{file
archives}, are visited in special modes which invoke a Dired-like
environment to allow operations on archive members.  @xref{File
Archives}, for more about these features.

@cindex wildcard characters in file names
@vindex find-file-wildcards
  If the file name you specify contains shell-style wildcard
characters, Emacs visits all the files that match it.  (On
case-insensitive filesystems, Emacs matches the wildcards disregarding
the letter case.)  Wildcards include @samp{?}, @samp{*}, and
@samp{[@dots{}]} sequences.  To enter the wild card @samp{?} in a file
name in the minibuffer, you need to type @kbd{C-q ?}.  @xref{Quoted
File Names}, for information on how to visit a file whose name
actually contains wildcard characters.  You can disable the wildcard
feature by customizing @code{find-file-wildcards}.

  If you visit a file that the operating system won't let you modify,
or that is marked read-only, Emacs makes the buffer read-only too, so
that you won't go ahead and make changes that you'll have trouble
saving afterward.  You can make the buffer writable with @kbd{C-x C-q}
(@code{toggle-read-only}).  @xref{Misc Buffer}.

@kindex C-x C-r
@findex find-file-read-only
  If you want to visit a file as read-only in order to protect
yourself from entering changes accidentally, visit it with the command
@kbd{C-x C-r} (@code{find-file-read-only}) instead of @kbd{C-x C-f}.

@kindex C-x C-v
@findex find-alternate-file
  If you visit a nonexistent file unintentionally (because you typed the
wrong file name), use the @kbd{C-x C-v} command
(@code{find-alternate-file}) to visit the file you really wanted.
@kbd{C-x C-v} is similar to @kbd{C-x C-f}, but it kills the current
buffer (after first offering to save it if it is modified).  When
@kbd{C-x C-v} reads the file name to visit, it inserts the entire
default file name in the buffer, with point just after the directory
part; this is convenient if you made a slight error in typing the name.

@kindex C-x 4 f
@findex find-file-other-window
  @kbd{C-x 4 f} (@code{find-file-other-window}) is like @kbd{C-x C-f}
except that the buffer containing the specified file is selected in another
window.  The window that was selected before @kbd{C-x 4 f} continues to
show the same buffer it was already showing.  If this command is used when
only one window is being displayed, that window is split in two, with one
window showing the same buffer as before, and the other one showing the
newly requested file.  @xref{Windows}.

@kindex C-x 5 f
@findex find-file-other-frame
  @kbd{C-x 5 f} (@code{find-file-other-frame}) is similar, but opens a
new frame, or makes visible any existing frame showing the file you
seek.  This feature is available only when you are using a window
system.  @xref{Frames}.

@findex find-file-literally
  If you wish to edit a file as a sequence of @acronym{ASCII} characters with no special
encoding or conversion, use the @kbd{M-x find-file-literally} command.
It visits a file, like @kbd{C-x C-f}, but does not do format conversion
(@pxref{Formatted Text}), character code conversion (@pxref{Coding
Systems}), or automatic uncompression (@pxref{Compressed Files}), and
does not add a final newline because of @code{require-final-newline}.
If you already have visited the same file in the usual (non-literal)
manner, this command asks you whether to visit it literally instead.

@vindex find-file-hook
@vindex find-file-not-found-functions
  Two special hook variables allow extensions to modify the operation of
visiting files.  Visiting a file that does not exist runs the functions
in the list @code{find-file-not-found-functions}; this variable holds a list
of functions, and the functions are called one by one (with no
arguments) until one of them returns non-@code{nil}.  This is not a
normal hook, and the name ends in @samp{-functions} rather than @samp{-hook}
to indicate that fact.

  Successful visiting of any file, whether existing or not, calls the
functions in the list @code{find-file-hook}, with no arguments.
This variable is a normal hook.  In the case of a nonexistent file, the
@code{find-file-not-found-functions} are run first.  @xref{Hooks}.

  There are several ways to specify automatically the major mode for
editing the file (@pxref{Choosing Modes}), and to specify local
variables defined for that file (@pxref{File Variables}).

@node Saving
@section Saving Files

  @dfn{Saving} a buffer in Emacs means writing its contents back into the file
that was visited in the buffer.

@menu
* Save Commands::       Commands for saving files.
* Backup::              How Emacs saves the old version of your file.
* Customize Save::      Customizing the saving of files.
* Interlocking::        How Emacs protects against simultaneous editing
                          of one file by two users.
* Shadowing: File Shadowing.  Copying files to "shadows" automatically.
* Time Stamps::         Emacs can update time stamps on saved files.
@end menu

@node Save Commands
@subsection Commands for Saving Files

  These are the commands that relate to saving and writing files.

@table @kbd
@item C-x C-s
Save the current buffer in its visited file on disk (@code{save-buffer}).
@item C-x s
Save any or all buffers in their visited files (@code{save-some-buffers}).
@item M-~
Forget that the current buffer has been changed (@code{not-modified}).
With prefix argument (@kbd{C-u}), mark the current buffer as changed.
@item C-x C-w
Save the current buffer with a specified file name (@code{write-file}).
@item M-x set-visited-file-name
Change the file name under which the current buffer will be saved.
@end table

@kindex C-x C-s
@findex save-buffer
  When you wish to save the file and make your changes permanent, type
@kbd{C-x C-s} (@code{save-buffer}).  After saving is finished, @kbd{C-x C-s}
displays a message like this:

@example
Wrote /u/rms/gnu/gnu.tasks
@end example

@noindent
If the selected buffer is not modified (no changes have been made in it
since the buffer was created or last saved), saving is not really done,
because it would have no effect.  Instead, @kbd{C-x C-s} displays a message
like this in the echo area:

@example
(No changes need to be saved)
@end example

@kindex C-x s
@findex save-some-buffers
  The command @kbd{C-x s} (@code{save-some-buffers}) offers to save any
or all modified buffers.  It asks you what to do with each buffer.  The
possible responses are analogous to those of @code{query-replace}:

@table @kbd
@item y
Save this buffer and ask about the rest of the buffers.
@item n
Don't save this buffer, but ask about the rest of the buffers.
@item !
Save this buffer and all the rest with no more questions.
@c following generates acceptable underfull hbox
@item @key{RET}
Terminate @code{save-some-buffers} without any more saving.
@item .
Save this buffer, then exit @code{save-some-buffers} without even asking
about other buffers.
@item C-r
View the buffer that you are currently being asked about.  When you exit
View mode, you get back to @code{save-some-buffers}, which asks the
question again.
@item d
Diff the buffer against its corresponding file, so you can see
what changes you would be saving.
@item C-h
Display a help message about these options.
@end table

  @kbd{C-x C-c}, the key sequence to exit Emacs, invokes
@code{save-some-buffers} and therefore asks the same questions.

@kindex M-~
@findex not-modified
  If you have changed a buffer but you do not want to save the changes,
you should take some action to prevent it.  Otherwise, each time you use
@kbd{C-x s} or @kbd{C-x C-c}, you are liable to save this buffer by
mistake.  One thing you can do is type @kbd{M-~} (@code{not-modified}),
which clears out the indication that the buffer is modified.  If you do
this, none of the save commands will believe that the buffer needs to be
saved.  (@samp{~} is often used as a mathematical symbol for `not'; thus
@kbd{M-~} is `not', metafied.)  You could also use
@code{set-visited-file-name} (see below) to mark the buffer as visiting
a different file name, one which is not in use for anything important.
Alternatively, you can cancel all the changes made since the file was
visited or saved, by reading the text from the file again.  This is
called @dfn{reverting}.  @xref{Reverting}.  (You could also undo all the
changes by repeating the undo command @kbd{C-x u} until you have undone
all the changes; but reverting is easier.)  You can also kill the buffer.

@findex set-visited-file-name
  @kbd{M-x set-visited-file-name} alters the name of the file that the
current buffer is visiting.  It reads the new file name using the
minibuffer.  Then it marks the buffer as visiting that file name, and
changes the buffer name correspondingly.  @code{set-visited-file-name}
does not save the buffer in the newly visited file; it just alters the
records inside Emacs in case you do save later.  It also marks the
buffer as ``modified'' so that @kbd{C-x C-s} in that buffer
@emph{will} save.

@kindex C-x C-w
@findex write-file
  If you wish to mark the buffer as visiting a different file and save it
right away, use @kbd{C-x C-w} (@code{write-file}).  It is
equivalent to @code{set-visited-file-name} followed by @kbd{C-x C-s}
(except that @kbd{C-x C-w} asks for confirmation if the file exists).
@kbd{C-x C-s} used on a buffer that is not visiting a file has the
same effect as @kbd{C-x C-w}; that is, it reads a file name, marks the
buffer as visiting that file, and saves it there.  The default file name in
a buffer that is not visiting a file is made by combining the buffer name
with the buffer's default directory (@pxref{File Names}).

  If the new file name implies a major mode, then @kbd{C-x C-w} switches
to that major mode, in most cases.  The command
@code{set-visited-file-name} also does this.  @xref{Choosing Modes}.

  If Emacs is about to save a file and sees that the date of the latest
version on disk does not match what Emacs last read or wrote, Emacs
notifies you of this fact, because it probably indicates a problem caused
by simultaneous editing and requires your immediate attention.
@xref{Interlocking,, Simultaneous Editing}.

@node Backup
@subsection Backup Files
@cindex backup file
@vindex make-backup-files
@vindex vc-make-backup-files

  On most operating systems, rewriting a file automatically destroys all
record of what the file used to contain.  Thus, saving a file from Emacs
throws away the old contents of the file---or it would, except that
Emacs carefully copies the old contents to another file, called the
@dfn{backup} file, before actually saving.

  For most files, the variable @code{make-backup-files} determines
whether to make backup files.  On most operating systems, its default
value is @code{t}, so that Emacs does write backup files.

  For files managed by a version control system (@pxref{Version
Control}), the variable @code{vc-make-backup-files} determines whether
to make backup files.  By default it is @code{nil}, since backup files
are redundant when you store all the previous versions in a version
control system.
@iftex
@xref{General VC Options,,,emacs-xtra, Specialized Emacs Features}.
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@xref{General VC Options}.
@end ifnottex


  At your option, Emacs can keep either a single backup for each file,
or make a series of numbered backup files for each file that you edit.

@vindex backup-enable-predicate
@vindex temporary-file-directory
@vindex small-temporary-file-directory
  The default value of the @code{backup-enable-predicate} variable
prevents backup files being written for files in the directories used
for temporary files, specified by @code{temporary-file-directory} or
@code{small-temporary-file-directory}.

  Emacs makes a backup for a file only the first time the file is saved
from one buffer.  No matter how many times you save a file, its backup file
continues to contain the contents from before the file was visited.
Normally this means that the backup file contains the contents from before
the current editing session; however, if you kill the buffer and then visit
the file again, a new backup file will be made by the next save.

  You can also explicitly request making another backup file from a
buffer even though it has already been saved at least once.  If you save
the buffer with @kbd{C-u C-x C-s}, the version thus saved will be made
into a backup file if you save the buffer again.  @kbd{C-u C-u C-x C-s}
saves the buffer, but first makes the previous file contents into a new
backup file.  @kbd{C-u C-u C-u C-x C-s} does both things: it makes a
backup from the previous contents, and arranges to make another from the
newly saved contents if you save again.

@menu
* One or Many: Numbered Backups. Whether to make one backup file or many.
* Names: Backup Names.          How backup files are named.
* Deletion: Backup Deletion.    Emacs deletes excess numbered backups.
* Copying: Backup Copying.      Backups can be made by copying or renaming.
@end menu

@node Numbered Backups
@subsubsection Numbered Backups

@vindex version-control
  The choice of single backup file or multiple numbered backup files
is controlled by the variable @code{version-control}.  Its possible
values are:

@table @code
@item t
Make numbered backups.
@item nil
Make numbered backups for files that have numbered backups already.
Otherwise, make single backups.
@item never
Never make numbered backups; always make single backups.
@end table

@noindent
The usual way to set this variable is globally, through your
@file{.emacs} file or the customization buffer.  However, you can set
@code{version-control} locally in an individual buffer to control the
making of backups for that buffer's file.  For example, Rmail mode
locally sets @code{version-control} to @code{never} to make sure that
there is only one backup for an Rmail file.  @xref{Locals}.

@cindex @env{VERSION_CONTROL} environment variable
  If you set the environment variable @env{VERSION_CONTROL}, to tell
various GNU utilities what to do with backup files, Emacs also obeys the
environment variable by setting the Lisp variable @code{version-control}
accordingly at startup.  If the environment variable's value is @samp{t}
or @samp{numbered}, then @code{version-control} becomes @code{t}; if the
value is @samp{nil} or @samp{existing}, then @code{version-control}
becomes @code{nil}; if it is @samp{never} or @samp{simple}, then
@code{version-control} becomes @code{never}.

@node Backup Names
@subsubsection Single or Numbered Backups

  When Emacs makes a single backup file, its name is normally
constructed by appending @samp{~} to the file name being edited; thus,
the backup file for @file{eval.c} would be @file{eval.c~}.

@vindex make-backup-file-name-function
@vindex backup-directory-alist
  You can change this behavior by defining the variable
@code{make-backup-file-name-function} to a suitable function.
Alternatively you can customize the variable
@code{backup-directory-alist} to specify that files matching certain
patterns should be backed up in specific directories.

  A typical use is to add an element @code{("." . @var{dir})} to make
all backups in the directory with absolute name @var{dir}; Emacs
modifies the backup file names to avoid clashes between files with the
same names originating in different directories.  Alternatively,
adding, say, @code{("." . ".~")} would make backups in the invisible
subdirectory @file{.~} of the original file's directory.  Emacs
creates the directory, if necessary, to make the backup.

  If access control stops Emacs from writing backup files under the usual
names, it writes the backup file as @file{%backup%~} in your home
directory.  Only one such file can exist, so only the most recently
made such backup is available.

  If you choose to have a series of numbered backup files, backup file
names contain @samp{.~}, the number, and another @samp{~} after the
original file name.  Thus, the backup files of @file{eval.c} would be
called @file{eval.c.~1~}, @file{eval.c.~2~}, and so on, all the way
through names like @file{eval.c.~259~} and beyond.  The variable
@code{backup-directory-alist} applies to numbered backups just as
usual.

@node Backup Deletion
@subsubsection Automatic Deletion of Backups

  To prevent excessive consumption of disk space, Emacs can delete numbered
backup versions automatically.  Generally Emacs keeps the first few backups
and the latest few backups, deleting any in between.  This happens every
time a new backup is made.

@vindex kept-old-versions
@vindex kept-new-versions
  The two variables @code{kept-old-versions} and
@code{kept-new-versions} control this deletion.  Their values are,
respectively, the number of oldest (lowest-numbered) backups to keep
and the number of newest (highest-numbered) ones to keep, each time a
new backup is made.  The backups in the middle (excluding those oldest
and newest) are the excess middle versions---those backups are
deleted.  These variables' values are used when it is time to delete
excess versions, just after a new backup version is made; the newly
made backup is included in the count in @code{kept-new-versions}.  By
default, both variables are 2.

@vindex delete-old-versions
  If @code{delete-old-versions} is @code{t}, Emacs deletes the excess
backup files silently.  If it is @code{nil}, the default, Emacs asks
you whether it should delete the excess backup versions.  If it has
any other value, then Emacs never automatically deletes backups.

  Dired's @kbd{.} (Period) command can also be used to delete old versions.
@xref{Dired Deletion}.

@node Backup Copying
@subsubsection Copying vs.@: Renaming

  Backup files can be made by copying the old file or by renaming it.
This makes a difference when the old file has multiple names (hard
links).  If the old file is renamed into the backup file, then the
alternate names become names for the backup file.  If the old file is
copied instead, then the alternate names remain names for the file
that you are editing, and the contents accessed by those names will be
the new contents.

  The method of making a backup file may also affect the file's owner
and group.  If copying is used, these do not change.  If renaming is used,
you become the file's owner, and the file's group becomes the default
(different operating systems have different defaults for the group).

  Having the owner change is usually a good idea, because then the owner
always shows who last edited the file.  Also, the owners of the backups
show who produced those versions.  Occasionally there is a file whose
owner should not change; it is a good idea for such files to contain
local variable lists to set @code{backup-by-copying-when-mismatch}
locally (@pxref{File Variables}).

@vindex backup-by-copying
@vindex backup-by-copying-when-linked
@vindex backup-by-copying-when-mismatch
@vindex backup-by-copying-when-privileged-mismatch
@cindex file ownership, and backup
@cindex backup, and user-id
  The choice of renaming or copying is controlled by four variables.
Renaming is the default choice.  If the variable
@code{backup-by-copying} is non-@code{nil}, copying is used.  Otherwise,
if the variable @code{backup-by-copying-when-linked} is non-@code{nil},
then copying is used for files that have multiple names, but renaming
may still be used when the file being edited has only one name.  If the
variable @code{backup-by-copying-when-mismatch} is non-@code{nil}, then
copying is used if renaming would cause the file's owner or group to
change.  @code{backup-by-copying-when-mismatch} is @code{t} by default
if you start Emacs as the superuser.  The fourth variable,
@code{backup-by-copying-when-privileged-mismatch}, gives the highest
numeric user-id for which @code{backup-by-copying-when-mismatch} will be
forced on.  This is useful when low-numbered user-ids are assigned to
special system users, such as @code{root}, @code{bin}, @code{daemon},
etc., which must maintain ownership of files.

  When a file is managed with a version control system (@pxref{Version
Control}), Emacs does not normally make backups in the usual way for
that file.  But check-in and check-out are similar in some ways to
making backups.  One unfortunate similarity is that these operations
typically break hard links, disconnecting the file name you visited from
any alternate names for the same file.  This has nothing to do with
Emacs---the version control system does it.

@node Customize Save
@subsection Customizing Saving of Files

@vindex require-final-newline
  If the value of the variable @code{require-final-newline} is
@code{t}, saving or writing a file silently puts a newline at the end
if there isn't already one there.  If the value is @code{visit}, Emacs
adds a newline at the end of any file that doesn't have one, just
after it visits the file.  (This marks the buffer as modified, and you
can undo it.)  If the value is @code{visit-save}, that means to add
newlines both on visiting and on saving.  If the value is @code{nil},
Emacs leaves the end of the file unchanged; if it's neither @code{nil}
nor @code{t}, Emacs asks you whether to add a newline.  The default is
@code{nil}.

@vindex mode-require-final-newline
  Many major modes are designed for specific kinds of files that are
always supposed to end in newlines.  These major modes set the
variable @code{require-final-newline} according to
@code{mode-require-final-newline}.  By setting the latter variable,
you can control how these modes handle final newlines.

@vindex write-region-inhibit-fsync
  When Emacs saves a file, it invokes the @code{fsync} system call to
force the data immediately out to disk.  This is important for safety
if the system crashes or in case of power outage.  However, it can be
disruptive on laptops using power saving, because it requires the disk
to spin up each time you save a file.  Setting
@code{write-region-inhibit-fsync} to a non-@code{nil} value disables
this synchronization.  Be careful---this means increased risk of data
loss.

@node Interlocking
@subsection Protection against Simultaneous Editing

@cindex file dates
@cindex simultaneous editing
  Simultaneous editing occurs when two users visit the same file, both
make changes, and then both save them.  If nobody were informed that
this was happening, whichever user saved first would later find that his
changes were lost.

  On some systems, Emacs notices immediately when the second user starts
to change the file, and issues an immediate warning.  On all systems,
Emacs checks when you save the file, and warns if you are about to
overwrite another user's changes.  You can prevent loss of the other
user's work by taking the proper corrective action instead of saving the
file.

@findex ask-user-about-lock
@cindex locking files
  When you make the first modification in an Emacs buffer that is
visiting a file, Emacs records that the file is @dfn{locked} by you.
(It does this by creating a symbolic link in the same directory with a
different name.)  Emacs removes the lock when you save the changes.  The
idea is that the file is locked whenever an Emacs buffer visiting it has
unsaved changes.

@cindex collision
  If you begin to modify the buffer while the visited file is locked by
someone else, this constitutes a @dfn{collision}.  When Emacs detects a
collision, it asks you what to do, by calling the Lisp function
@code{ask-user-about-lock}.  You can redefine this function for the sake
of customization.  The standard definition of this function asks you a
question and accepts three possible answers:

@table @kbd
@item s
Steal the lock.  Whoever was already changing the file loses the lock,
and you gain the lock.
@item p
Proceed.  Go ahead and edit the file despite its being locked by someone else.
@item q
Quit.  This causes an error (@code{file-locked}), and the buffer
contents remain unchanged---the modification you were trying to make
does not actually take place.
@end table

  Note that locking works on the basis of a file name; if a file has
multiple names, Emacs does not realize that the two names are the same file
and cannot prevent two users from editing it simultaneously under different
names.  However, basing locking on names means that Emacs can interlock the
editing of new files that will not really exist until they are saved.

  Some systems are not configured to allow Emacs to make locks, and
there are cases where lock files cannot be written.  In these cases,
Emacs cannot detect trouble in advance, but it still can detect the
collision when you try to save a file and overwrite someone else's
changes.

  If Emacs or the operating system crashes, this may leave behind lock
files which are stale, so you may occasionally get warnings about
spurious collisions.  When you determine that the collision is spurious,
just use @kbd{p} to tell Emacs to go ahead anyway.

  Every time Emacs saves a buffer, it first checks the last-modification
date of the existing file on disk to verify that it has not changed since the
file was last visited or saved.  If the date does not match, it implies
that changes were made in the file in some other way, and these changes are
about to be lost if Emacs actually does save.  To prevent this, Emacs
displays a warning message and asks for confirmation before saving.
Occasionally you will know why the file was changed and know that it does
not matter; then you can answer @kbd{yes} and proceed.  Otherwise, you should
cancel the save with @kbd{C-g} and investigate the situation.

  The first thing you should do when notified that simultaneous editing
has already taken place is to list the directory with @kbd{C-u C-x C-d}
(@pxref{Directories}).  This shows the file's current author.  You
should attempt to contact him to warn him not to continue editing.
Often the next step is to save the contents of your Emacs buffer under a
different name, and use @code{diff} to compare the two files.@refill

@node File Shadowing
@subsection Shadowing Files
@cindex shadow files
@cindex file shadows
@findex shadow-initialize

@table @kbd
@item M-x shadow-initialize
Set up file shadowing.
@item M-x shadow-define-literal-group
Declare a single file to be shared between sites.
@item M-x shadow-define-regexp-group
Make all files that match each of a group of files be shared between hosts.
@item M-x shadow-define-cluster @key{RET} @var{name} @key{RET}
Define a shadow file cluster @var{name}.
@item M-x shadow-copy-files
Copy all pending shadow files.
@item M-x shadow-cancel
Cancel the instruction to shadow some files.
@end table

You can arrange to keep identical @dfn{shadow} copies of certain files
in more than one place---possibly on different machines.  To do this,
first you must set up a @dfn{shadow file group}, which is a set of
identically-named files shared between a list of sites.  The file
group is permanent and applies to further Emacs sessions as well as
the current one.  Once the group is set up, every time you exit Emacs,
it will copy the file you edited to the other files in its group.  You
can also do the copying without exiting Emacs, by typing @kbd{M-x
shadow-copy-files}.

To set up a shadow file group, use @kbd{M-x
shadow-define-literal-group} or @kbd{M-x shadow-define-regexp-group}.
See their documentation strings for further information.

Before copying a file to its shadows, Emacs asks for confirmation.
You can answer ``no'' to bypass copying of this file, this time.  If
you want to cancel the shadowing permanently for a certain file, use
@kbd{M-x shadow-cancel} to eliminate or change the shadow file group.

A @dfn{shadow cluster} is a group of hosts that share directories, so
that copying to or from one of them is sufficient to update the file
on all of them.  Each shadow cluster has a name, and specifies the
network address of a primary host (the one we copy files to), and a
regular expression that matches the host names of all the other hosts
in the cluster.  You can define a shadow cluster with @kbd{M-x
shadow-define-cluster}.

@node Time Stamps
@subsection Updating Time Stamps Automatically
@cindex time stamps
@cindex modification dates
@cindex locale, date format

You can arrange to put a time stamp in a file, so that it will be updated
automatically each time you edit and save the file.  The time stamp
has to be in the first eight lines of the file, and you should
insert it like this:

@example
Time-stamp: <>
@end example

@noindent
or like this:

@example
Time-stamp: " "
@end example

@findex time-stamp
  Then add the hook function @code{time-stamp} to the hook
@code{before-save-hook}; that hook function will automatically update
the time stamp, inserting the current date and time when you save the
file.  You can also use the command @kbd{M-x time-stamp} to update the
time stamp manually.  For other customizations, see the Custom group
@code{time-stamp}.  Note that non-numeric fields in the time stamp are
formatted according to your locale setting (@pxref{Environment}).

@node Reverting
@section Reverting a Buffer
@findex revert-buffer
@cindex drastic changes
@cindex reread a file

  If you have made extensive changes to a file and then change your mind
about them, you can get rid of them by reading in the previous version
of the file.  To do this, use @kbd{M-x revert-buffer}, which operates on
the current buffer.  Since reverting a buffer unintentionally could lose
a lot of work, you must confirm this command with @kbd{yes}.

  @code{revert-buffer} tries to position point in such a way that, if
the file was edited only slightly, you will be at approximately the
same piece of text after reverting as before.  However, if you have made
drastic changes, point may wind up in a totally different piece of text.

  Reverting marks the buffer as ``not modified'' until another change is
made.

  Some kinds of buffers whose contents reflect data bases other than files,
such as Dired buffers, can also be reverted.  For them, reverting means
recalculating their contents from the appropriate data base.  Buffers
created explicitly with @kbd{C-x b} cannot be reverted; @code{revert-buffer}
reports an error when asked to do so.

@vindex revert-without-query
  When you edit a file that changes automatically and frequently---for
example, a log of output from a process that continues to run---it may be
useful for Emacs to revert the file without querying you, whenever you
visit the file again with @kbd{C-x C-f}.

  To request this behavior, set the variable @code{revert-without-query}
to a list of regular expressions.  When a file name matches one of these
regular expressions, @code{find-file} and @code{revert-buffer} will
revert it automatically if it has changed---provided the buffer itself
is not modified.  (If you have edited the text, it would be wrong to
discard your changes.)

@cindex Global Auto-Revert mode
@cindex mode, Global Auto-Revert
@cindex Auto-Revert mode
@cindex mode, Auto-Revert
@findex global-auto-revert-mode
@findex auto-revert-mode
@findex auto-revert-tail-mode

  You may find it useful to have Emacs revert files automatically when
they change.  Three minor modes are available to do this.

  @kbd{M-x global-auto-revert-mode} enables Global Auto-Revert mode,
which periodically checks all file buffers and reverts when the
corresponding file has changed.  @kbd{M-x auto-revert-mode} enables a
local version, Auto-Revert mode, which applies only to the current
buffer.

  You can use Auto-Revert mode to ``tail'' a file such as a system
log, so that changes made to that file by other programs are
continuously displayed.  To do this, just move the point to the end of
the buffer, and it will stay there as the file contents change.
However, if you are sure that the file will only change by growing at
the end, use Auto-Revert Tail mode instead
(@code{auto-revert-tail-mode}).  It is more efficient for this.

@vindex auto-revert-interval
  The variable @code{auto-revert-interval} controls how often to check
for a changed file.  Since checking a remote file is too slow, these
modes do not check or revert remote files.

  @xref{VC Mode Line}, for Auto Revert peculiarities in buffers that
visit files under version control.

@ifnottex
@include arevert-xtra.texi
@end ifnottex

@node Auto Save
@section Auto-Saving: Protection Against Disasters
@cindex Auto Save mode
@cindex mode, Auto Save
@cindex crashes

  Emacs saves all the visited files from time to time (based on
counting your keystrokes) without being asked, in separate files so as
not to alter the files you actually use.  This is called
@dfn{auto-saving}.  It prevents you from losing more than a limited
amount of work if the system crashes.

  When Emacs determines that it is time for auto-saving, it considers
each buffer, and each is auto-saved if auto-saving is enabled for it
and it has been changed since the last time it was auto-saved.  The
message @samp{Auto-saving...} is displayed in the echo area during
auto-saving, if any files are actually auto-saved.  Errors occurring
during auto-saving are caught so that they do not interfere with the
execution of commands you have been typing.

@menu
* Files: Auto Save Files.       The file where auto-saved changes are
                                  actually made until you save the file.
* Control: Auto Save Control.   Controlling when and how often to auto-save.
* Recover::                     Recovering text from auto-save files.
@end menu

@node Auto Save Files
@subsection Auto-Save Files

  Auto-saving does not normally save in the files that you visited, because
it can be very undesirable to save a program that is in an inconsistent
state when you have made half of a planned change.  Instead, auto-saving
is done in a different file called the @dfn{auto-save file}, and the
visited file is changed only when you request saving explicitly (such as
with @kbd{C-x C-s}).

  Normally, the auto-save file name is made by appending @samp{#} to the
front and rear of the visited file name.  Thus, a buffer visiting file
@file{foo.c} is auto-saved in a file @file{#foo.c#}.  Most buffers that
are not visiting files are auto-saved only if you request it explicitly;
when they are auto-saved, the auto-save file name is made by appending
@samp{#} to the front and rear of buffer name, then
adding digits and letters at the end for uniqueness.  For
example, the @samp{*mail*} buffer in which you compose messages to be
sent might be auto-saved in a file named @file{#*mail*#704juu}.  Auto-save file
names are made this way unless you reprogram parts of Emacs to do
something different (the functions @code{make-auto-save-file-name} and
@code{auto-save-file-name-p}).  The file name to be used for auto-saving
in a buffer is calculated when auto-saving is turned on in that buffer.

@cindex auto-save for remote files
@vindex auto-save-file-name-transforms
  The variable @code{auto-save-file-name-transforms} allows a degree
of control over the auto-save file name.  It lets you specify a series
of regular expressions and replacements to transform the auto save
file name.  The default value puts the auto-save files for remote
files (@pxref{Remote Files}) into the temporary file directory on the
local machine.

  When you delete a substantial part of the text in a large buffer, auto
save turns off temporarily in that buffer.  This is because if you
deleted the text unintentionally, you might find the auto-save file more
useful if it contains the deleted text.  To reenable auto-saving after
this happens, save the buffer with @kbd{C-x C-s}, or use @kbd{C-u 1 M-x
auto-save-mode}.

@vindex auto-save-visited-file-name
  If you want auto-saving to be done in the visited file rather than
in a separate auto-save file, set the variable
@code{auto-save-visited-file-name} to a non-@code{nil} value.  In this
mode, there is no real difference between auto-saving and explicit
saving.

@vindex delete-auto-save-files
  A buffer's auto-save file is deleted when you save the buffer in its
visited file.  (You can inhibit this by setting the variable
@code{delete-auto-save-files} to @code{nil}.)  Changing the visited
file name with @kbd{C-x C-w} or @code{set-visited-file-name} renames
any auto-save file to go with the new visited name.

@node Auto Save Control
@subsection Controlling Auto-Saving

@vindex auto-save-default
@findex auto-save-mode
  Each time you visit a file, auto-saving is turned on for that file's
buffer if the variable @code{auto-save-default} is non-@code{nil} (but not
in batch mode; @pxref{Entering Emacs}).  The default for this variable is
@code{t}, so auto-saving is the usual practice for file-visiting buffers.
Auto-saving can be turned on or off for any existing buffer with the
command @kbd{M-x auto-save-mode}.  Like other minor mode commands, @kbd{M-x
auto-save-mode} turns auto-saving on with a positive argument, off with a
zero or negative argument; with no argument, it toggles.

@vindex auto-save-interval
  Emacs does auto-saving periodically based on counting how many characters
you have typed since the last time auto-saving was done.  The variable
@code{auto-save-interval} specifies how many characters there are between
auto-saves.  By default, it is 300.  Emacs doesn't accept values that are
too small: if you customize @code{auto-save-interval} to a value less
than 20, Emacs will behave as if the value is 20.

@vindex auto-save-timeout
  Auto-saving also takes place when you stop typing for a while.  The
variable @code{auto-save-timeout} says how many seconds Emacs should
wait before it does an auto save (and perhaps also a garbage
collection).  (The actual time period is longer if the current buffer is
long; this is a heuristic which aims to keep out of your way when you
are editing long buffers, in which auto-save takes an appreciable amount
of time.)  Auto-saving during idle periods accomplishes two things:
first, it makes sure all your work is saved if you go away from the
terminal for a while; second, it may avoid some auto-saving while you
are actually typing.

  Emacs also does auto-saving whenever it gets a fatal error.  This
includes killing the Emacs job with a shell command such as @samp{kill
%emacs}, or disconnecting a phone line or network connection.

@findex do-auto-save
  You can request an auto-save explicitly with the command @kbd{M-x
do-auto-save}.

@node Recover
@subsection Recovering Data from Auto-Saves

@findex recover-file
  You can use the contents of an auto-save file to recover from a loss
of data with the command @kbd{M-x recover-file @key{RET} @var{file}
@key{RET}}.  This visits @var{file} and then (after your confirmation)
restores the contents from its auto-save file @file{#@var{file}#}.
You can then save with @kbd{C-x C-s} to put the recovered text into
@var{file} itself.  For example, to recover file @file{foo.c} from its
auto-save file @file{#foo.c#}, do:@refill

@example
M-x recover-file @key{RET} foo.c @key{RET}
yes @key{RET}