root/trunk/man/cl.texi

\input texinfo    @c -*-texinfo-*-
@setfilename ../info/cl
@settitle Common Lisp Extensions

@copying
This file documents the GNU Emacs Common Lisp emulation package.

Copyright @copyright{} 1993, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008
Free Software Foundation, Inc.

@quotation
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or
any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no
Invariant Sections, with the Front-Cover texts being ``A GNU
Manual'', and with the Back-Cover Texts as in (a) below.  A copy of the
license is included in the section entitled ``GNU Free Documentation
License'' in the Emacs manual.

(a) The FSF's Back-Cover Text is: ``You have freedom to copy and modify
this GNU Manual, like GNU software.  Copies published by the Free
Software Foundation raise funds for GNU development.''

This document is part of a collection distributed under the GNU Free
Documentation License.  If you want to distribute this document
separately from the collection, you can do so by adding a copy of the
license to the document, as described in section 6 of the license.
@end quotation
@end copying

@dircategory Emacs
@direntry
* CL: (cl).             Partial Common Lisp support for Emacs Lisp.
@end direntry

@finalout

@titlepage
@sp 6
@center @titlefont{Common Lisp Extensions}
@sp 4
@center For GNU Emacs Lisp
@sp 1
@center Version 2.02
@sp 5
@center Dave Gillespie
@center daveg@@synaptics.com
@page
@vskip 0pt plus 1filll
@insertcopying
@end titlepage

@node Top, Overview, (dir), (dir)
@chapter Introduction

@noindent
This document describes a set of Emacs Lisp facilities borrowed from
Common Lisp.  All the facilities are described here in detail.  While
this document does not assume any prior knowledge of Common Lisp, it
does assume a basic familiarity with Emacs Lisp.

@menu
* Overview::             Installation, usage, etc.
* Program Structure::    Arglists, `eval-when', `defalias'
* Predicates::           `typep' and `equalp'
* Control Structure::    `setf', `do', `loop', etc.
* Macros::               Destructuring, `define-compiler-macro'
* Declarations::         `proclaim', `declare', etc.
* Symbols::              Property lists, `gensym'
* Numbers::              Predicates, functions, random numbers
* Sequences::            Mapping, functions, searching, sorting
* Lists::                `caddr', `sublis', `member*', `assoc*', etc.
* Structures::           `defstruct'
* Assertions::           `check-type', `assert', `ignore-errors'.

* Efficiency Concerns::         Hints and techniques
* Common Lisp Compatibility::   All known differences with Steele
* Old CL Compatibility::        All known differences with old cl.el
* Porting Common Lisp::         Hints for porting Common Lisp code

* GNU Free Documentation License:: The license for this documentation.
* Function Index::
* Variable Index::
@end menu

@node Overview, Program Structure, Top, Top
@ifnottex
@chapter Overview
@end ifnottex

@noindent
Common Lisp is a huge language, and Common Lisp systems tend to be
massive and extremely complex.  Emacs Lisp, by contrast, is rather
minimalist in the choice of Lisp features it offers the programmer.
As Emacs Lisp programmers have grown in number, and the applications
they write have grown more ambitious, it has become clear that Emacs
Lisp could benefit from many of the conveniences of Common Lisp.

The @dfn{CL} package adds a number of Common Lisp functions and
control structures to Emacs Lisp.  While not a 100% complete
implementation of Common Lisp, @dfn{CL} adds enough functionality
to make Emacs Lisp programming significantly more convenient.

@strong{Please note:} the @dfn{CL} functions are not standard parts of
the Emacs Lisp name space, so it is legitimate for users to define
them with other, conflicting meanings.  To avoid conflicting with
those user activities, we have a policy that packages installed in
Emacs must not load @dfn{CL} at run time.  (It is ok for them to load
@dfn{CL} at compile time only, with @code{eval-when-compile}, and use
the macros it provides.)  If you are writing packages that you plan to
distribute and invite widespread use for, you might want to observe
the same rule.

Some Common Lisp features have been omitted from this package
for various reasons:

@itemize @bullet
@item
Some features are too complex or bulky relative to their benefit
to Emacs Lisp programmers.  CLOS and Common Lisp streams are fine
examples of this group.

@item
Other features cannot be implemented without modification to the
Emacs Lisp interpreter itself, such as multiple return values,
lexical scoping, case-insensitive symbols, and complex numbers.
The @dfn{CL} package generally makes no attempt to emulate these
features.

@item
Some features conflict with existing things in Emacs Lisp.  For
example, Emacs' @code{assoc} function is incompatible with the
Common Lisp @code{assoc}.  In such cases, this package usually
adds the suffix @samp{*} to the function name of the Common
Lisp version of the function (e.g., @code{assoc*}).
@end itemize

The package described here was written by Dave Gillespie,
@file{daveg@@synaptics.com}.  It is a total rewrite of the original
1986 @file{cl.el} package by Cesar Quiroz.  Most features of the
Quiroz package have been retained; any incompatibilities are
noted in the descriptions below.  Care has been taken in this
version to ensure that each function is defined efficiently,
concisely, and with minimal impact on the rest of the Emacs
environment.

@menu
* Usage::                How to use the CL package
* Organization::         The package's five component files
* Installation::         Compiling and installing CL
* Naming Conventions::   Notes on CL function names
@end menu

@node Usage, Organization, Overview, Overview
@section Usage

@noindent
Lisp code that uses features from the @dfn{CL} package should
include at the beginning:

@example
(require 'cl)
@end example

@noindent
If you want to ensure that the new (Gillespie) version of @dfn{CL}
is the one that is present, add an additional @code{(require 'cl-19)}
call:

@example
(require 'cl)
(require 'cl-19)
@end example

@noindent
The second call will fail (with ``@file{cl-19.el} not found'') if
the old @file{cl.el} package was in use.

It is safe to arrange to load @dfn{CL} at all times, e.g.,
in your @file{.emacs} file.  But it's a good idea, for portability,
to @code{(require 'cl)} in your code even if you do this.

@node Organization, Installation, Usage, Overview
@section Organization

@noindent
The Common Lisp package is organized into four files:

@table @file
@item cl.el
This is the ``main'' file, which contains basic functions
and information about the package.  This file is relatively
compact---about 700 lines.

@item cl-extra.el
This file contains the larger, more complex or unusual functions.
It is kept separate so that packages which only want to use Common
Lisp fundamentals like the @code{cadr} function won't need to pay
the overhead of loading the more advanced functions.

@item cl-seq.el
This file contains most of the advanced functions for operating
on sequences or lists, such as @code{delete-if} and @code{assoc*}.

@item cl-macs.el
This file contains the features of the packages which are macros
instead of functions.  Macros expand when the caller is compiled,
not when it is run, so the macros generally only need to be
present when the byte-compiler is running (or when the macros are
used in uncompiled code such as a @file{.emacs} file).  Most of
the macros of this package are isolated in @file{cl-macs.el} so
that they won't take up memory unless you are compiling.
@end table

The file @file{cl.el} includes all necessary @code{autoload}
commands for the functions and macros in the other three files.
All you have to do is @code{(require 'cl)}, and @file{cl.el}
will take care of pulling in the other files when they are
needed.

There is another file, @file{cl-compat.el}, which defines some
routines from the older @file{cl.el} package that are no longer
present in the new package.  This includes internal routines
like @code{setelt} and @code{zip-lists}, deprecated features
like @code{defkeyword}, and an emulation of the old-style
multiple-values feature.  @xref{Old CL Compatibility}.

@node Installation, Naming Conventions, Organization, Overview
@section Installation

@noindent
Installation of the @dfn{CL} package is simple:  Just put the
byte-compiled files @file{cl.elc}, @file{cl-extra.elc},
@file{cl-seq.elc}, @file{cl-macs.elc}, and @file{cl-compat.elc}
into a directory on your @code{load-path}.

There are no special requirements to compile this package:
The files do not have to be loaded before they are compiled,
nor do they need to be compiled in any particular order.

You may choose to put the files into your main @file{lisp/}
directory, replacing the original @file{cl.el} file there.  Or,
you could put them into a directory that comes before @file{lisp/}
on your @code{load-path} so that the old @file{cl.el} is
effectively hidden.

Also, format the @file{cl.texinfo} file and put the resulting
Info files in the @file{info/} directory or another suitable place.

You may instead wish to leave this package's components all in
their own directory, and then add this directory to your
@code{load-path} and @code{Info-directory-list}.
Add the directory to the front of the list so the old @dfn{CL}
package and its documentation are hidden.

@node Naming Conventions,  , Installation, Overview
@section Naming Conventions

@noindent
Except where noted, all functions defined by this package have the
same names and calling conventions as their Common Lisp counterparts.

Following is a complete list of functions whose names were changed
from Common Lisp, usually to avoid conflicts with Emacs.  In each
case, a @samp{*} has been appended to the Common Lisp name to obtain
the Emacs name:

@example
defun*        defsubst*     defmacro*     function*
member*       assoc*        rassoc*       get*
remove*       delete*       mapcar*       sort*
floor*        ceiling*      truncate*     round*
mod*          rem*          random*
@end example

Internal function and variable names in the package are prefixed
by @code{cl-}.  Here is a complete list of functions @emph{not}
prefixed by @code{cl-} which were not taken from Common Lisp:

@example
floatp-safe   lexical-let   lexical-let*
callf         callf2        letf          letf*
defsubst*
@end example

The following simple functions and macros are defined in @file{cl.el};
they do not cause other components like @file{cl-extra} to be loaded.

@example
floatp-safe   endp
evenp         oddp          plusp         minusp
caaar .. cddddr
list*         ldiff         rest          first .. tenth
copy-list     subst         mapcar* [2]
adjoin [3]    acons         pairlis       pop [4]
push [4]      pushnew [3,4] incf [4]      decf [4]
proclaim      declaim
@end example

@noindent
[2] Only for one sequence argument or two list arguments.

@noindent
[3] Only if @code{:test} is @code{eq}, @code{equal}, or unspecified,
and @code{:key} is not used.

@noindent
[4] Only when @var{place} is a plain variable name.

@iftex
@chapno=4
@end iftex

@node Program Structure, Predicates, Overview, Top
@chapter Program Structure

@noindent
This section describes features of the @dfn{CL} package which have to
do with programs as a whole: advanced argument lists for functions,
and the @code{eval-when} construct.

@menu
* Argument Lists::       `&key', `&aux', `defun*', `defmacro*'.
* Time of Evaluation::   The `eval-when' construct.
@end menu

@iftex
@secno=1
@end iftex

@node Argument Lists, Time of Evaluation, Program Structure, Program Structure
@section Argument Lists

@noindent
Emacs Lisp's notation for argument lists of functions is a subset of
the Common Lisp notation.  As well as the familiar @code{&optional}
and @code{&rest} markers, Common Lisp allows you to specify default
values for optional arguments, and it provides the additional markers
@code{&key} and @code{&aux}.

Since argument parsing is built-in to Emacs, there is no way for
this package to implement Common Lisp argument lists seamlessly.
Instead, this package defines alternates for several Lisp forms
which you must use if you need Common Lisp argument lists.

@defspec defun* name arglist body...
This form is identical to the regular @code{defun} form, except
that @var{arglist} is allowed to be a full Common Lisp argument
list.  Also, the function body is enclosed in an implicit block
called @var{name}; @pxref{Blocks and Exits}.
@end defspec

@defspec defsubst* name arglist body...
This is just like @code{defun*}, except that the function that
is defined is automatically proclaimed @code{inline}, i.e.,
calls to it may be expanded into in-line code by the byte compiler.
This is analogous to the @code{defsubst} form;
@code{defsubst*} uses a different method (compiler macros) which
works in all version of Emacs, and also generates somewhat more
efficient inline expansions.  In particular, @code{defsubst*}
arranges for the processing of keyword arguments, default values,
etc., to be done at compile-time whenever possible.
@end defspec

@defspec defmacro* name arglist body...
This is identical to the regular @code{defmacro} form,
except that @var{arglist} is allowed to be a full Common Lisp
argument list.  The @code{&environment} keyword is supported as
described in Steele.  The @code{&whole} keyword is supported only
within destructured lists (see below); top-level @code{&whole}
cannot be implemented with the current Emacs Lisp interpreter.
The macro expander body is enclosed in an implicit block called
@var{name}.
@end defspec

@defspec function* symbol-or-lambda
This is identical to the regular @code{function} form,
except that if the argument is a @code{lambda} form then that
form may use a full Common Lisp argument list.
@end defspec

Also, all forms (such as @code{defsetf} and @code{flet}) defined
in this package that include @var{arglist}s in their syntax allow
full Common Lisp argument lists.

Note that it is @emph{not} necessary to use @code{defun*} in
order to have access to most @dfn{CL} features in your function.
These features are always present; @code{defun*}'s only
difference from @code{defun} is its more flexible argument
lists and its implicit block.

The full form of a Common Lisp argument list is

@example
(@var{var}...
 &optional (@var{var} @var{initform} @var{svar})...
 &rest @var{var}
 &key ((@var{keyword} @var{var}) @var{initform} @var{svar})...
 &aux (@var{var} @var{initform})...)
@end example

Each of the five argument list sections is optional.  The @var{svar},
@var{initform}, and @var{keyword} parts are optional; if they are
omitted, then @samp{(@var{var})} may be written simply @samp{@var{var}}.

The first section consists of zero or more @dfn{required} arguments.
These arguments must always be specified in a call to the function;
there is no difference between Emacs Lisp and Common Lisp as far as
required arguments are concerned.

The second section consists of @dfn{optional} arguments.  These
arguments may be specified in the function call; if they are not,
@var{initform} specifies the default value used for the argument.
(No @var{initform} means to use @code{nil} as the default.)  The
@var{initform} is evaluated with the bindings for the preceding
arguments already established; @code{(a &optional (b (1+ a)))}
matches one or two arguments, with the second argument defaulting
to one plus the first argument.  If the @var{svar} is specified,
it is an auxiliary variable which is bound to @code{t} if the optional
argument was specified, or to @code{nil} if the argument was omitted.
If you don't use an @var{svar}, then there will be no way for your
function to tell whether it was called with no argument, or with
the default value passed explicitly as an argument.

The third section consists of a single @dfn{rest} argument.  If
more arguments were passed to the function than are accounted for
by the required and optional arguments, those extra arguments are
collected into a list and bound to the ``rest'' argument variable.
Common Lisp's @code{&rest} is equivalent to that of Emacs Lisp.
Common Lisp accepts @code{&body} as a synonym for @code{&rest} in
macro contexts; this package accepts it all the time.

The fourth section consists of @dfn{keyword} arguments.  These
are optional arguments which are specified by name rather than
positionally in the argument list.  For example,

@example
(defun* foo (a &optional b &key c d (e 17)))
@end example

@noindent
defines a function which may be called with one, two, or more
arguments.  The first two arguments are bound to @code{a} and
@code{b} in the usual way.  The remaining arguments must be
pairs of the form @code{:c}, @code{:d}, or @code{:e} followed
by the value to be bound to the corresponding argument variable.
(Symbols whose names begin with a colon are called @dfn{keywords},
and they are self-quoting in the same way as @code{nil} and
@code{t}.)

For example, the call @code{(foo 1 2 :d 3 :c 4)} sets the five
arguments to 1, 2, 4, 3, and 17, respectively.  If the same keyword
appears more than once in the function call, the first occurrence
takes precedence over the later ones.  Note that it is not possible
to specify keyword arguments without specifying the optional
argument @code{b} as well, since @code{(foo 1 :c 2)} would bind
@code{b} to the keyword @code{:c}, then signal an error because
@code{2} is not a valid keyword.

If a @var{keyword} symbol is explicitly specified in the argument
list as shown in the above diagram, then that keyword will be
used instead of just the variable name prefixed with a colon.
You can specify a @var{keyword} symbol which does not begin with
a colon at all, but such symbols will not be self-quoting; you
will have to quote them explicitly with an apostrophe in the
function call.

Ordinarily it is an error to pass an unrecognized keyword to
a function, e.g., @code{(foo 1 2 :c 3 :goober 4)}.  You can ask
Lisp to ignore unrecognized keywords, either by adding the
marker @code{&allow-other-keys} after the keyword section
of the argument list, or by specifying an @code{:allow-other-keys}
argument in the call whose value is non-@code{nil}.  If the
function uses both @code{&rest} and @code{&key} at the same time,
the ``rest'' argument is bound to the keyword list as it appears
in the call.  For example:

@smallexample
(defun* find-thing (thing &rest rest &key need &allow-other-keys)
  (or (apply 'member* thing thing-list :allow-other-keys t rest)
      (if need (error "Thing not found"))))
@end smallexample

@noindent
This function takes a @code{:need} keyword argument, but also
accepts other keyword arguments which are passed on to the
@code{member*} function.  @code{allow-other-keys} is used to
keep both @code{find-thing} and @code{member*} from complaining
about each others' keywords in the arguments.

The fifth section of the argument list consists of @dfn{auxiliary
variables}.  These are not really arguments at all, but simply
variables which are bound to @code{nil} or to the specified
@var{initforms} during execution of the function.  There is no
difference between the following two functions, except for a
matter of stylistic taste:

@example
(defun* foo (a b &aux (c (+ a b)) d)
  @var{body})

(defun* foo (a b)
  (let ((c (+ a b)) d)
    @var{body}))
@end example

Argument lists support @dfn{destructuring}.  In Common Lisp,
destructuring is only allowed with @code{defmacro}; this package
allows it with @code{defun*} and other argument lists as well.
In destructuring, any argument variable (@var{var} in the above
diagram) can be replaced by a list of variables, or more generally,
a recursive argument list.  The corresponding argument value must
be a list whose elements match this recursive argument list.
For example:

@example
(defmacro* dolist ((var listform &optional resultform)
                   &rest body)
  ...)
@end example

This says that the first argument of @code{dolist} must be a list
of two or three items; if there are other arguments as well as this
list, they are stored in @code{body}.  All features allowed in
regular argument lists are allowed in these recursive argument lists.
In addition, the clause @samp{&whole @var{var}} is allowed at the
front of a recursive argument list.  It binds @var{var} to the
whole list being matched; thus @code{(&whole all a b)} matches
a list of two things, with @code{a} bound to the first thing,
@code{b} bound to the second thing, and @code{all} bound to the
list itself.  (Common Lisp allows @code{&whole} in top-level
@code{defmacro} argument lists as well, but Emacs Lisp does not
support this usage.)

One last feature of destructuring is that the argument list may be
dotted, so that the argument list @code{(a b . c)} is functionally
equivalent to @code{(a b &rest c)}.

If the optimization quality @code{safety} is set to 0
(@pxref{Declarations}), error checking for wrong number of
arguments and invalid keyword arguments is disabled.  By default,
argument lists are rigorously checked.

@node Time of Evaluation,  , Argument Lists, Program Structure
@section Time of Evaluation

@noindent
Normally, the byte-compiler does not actually execute the forms in
a file it compiles.  For example, if a file contains @code{(setq foo t)},
the act of compiling it will not actually set @code{foo} to @code{t}.
This is true even if the @code{setq} was a top-level form (i.e., not
enclosed in a @code{defun} or other form).  Sometimes, though, you
would like to have certain top-level forms evaluated at compile-time.
For example, the compiler effectively evaluates @code{defmacro} forms
at compile-time so that later parts of the file can refer to the
macros that are defined.

@defspec eval-when (situations...) forms...
This form controls when the body @var{forms} are evaluated.
The @var{situations} list may contain any set of the symbols
@code{compile}, @code{load}, and @code{eval} (or their long-winded
ANSI equivalents, @code{:compile-toplevel}, @code{:load-toplevel},
and @code{:execute}).

The @code{eval-when} form is handled differently depending on
whether or not it is being compiled as a top-level form.
Specifically, it gets special treatment if it is being compiled
by a command such as @code{byte-compile-file} which compiles files
or buffers of code, and it appears either literally at the
top level of the file or inside a top-level @code{progn}.

For compiled top-level @code{eval-when}s, the body @var{forms} are
executed at compile-time if @code{compile} is in the @var{situations}
list, and the @var{forms} are written out to the file (to be executed
at load-time) if @code{load} is in the @var{situations} list.

For non-compiled-top-level forms, only the @code{eval} situation is
relevant.  (This includes forms executed by the interpreter, forms
compiled with @code{byte-compile} rather than @code{byte-compile-file},
and non-top-level forms.)  The @code{eval-when} acts like a
@code{progn} if @code{eval} is specified, and like @code{nil}
(ignoring the body @var{forms}) if not.

The rules become more subtle when @code{eval-when}s are nested;
consult Steele (second edition) for the gruesome details (and
some gruesome examples).

Some simple examples:

@example
;; Top-level forms in foo.el:
(eval-when (compile)           (setq foo1 'bar))
(eval-when (load)              (setq foo2 'bar))
(eval-when (compile load)      (setq foo3 'bar))
(eval-when (eval)              (setq foo4 'bar))
(eval-when (eval compile)      (setq foo5 'bar))
(eval-when (eval load)         (setq foo6 'bar))
(eval-when (eval compile load) (setq foo7 'bar))
@end example

When @file{foo.el} is compiled, these variables will be set during
the compilation itself:

@example
foo1  foo3  foo5  foo7      ; `compile'
@end example

When @file{foo.elc} is loaded, these variables will be set:

@example
foo2  foo3  foo6  foo7      ; `load'
@end example

And if @file{foo.el} is loaded uncompiled, these variables will
be set:

@example
foo4  foo5  foo6  foo7      ; `eval'
@end example

If these seven @code{eval-when}s had been, say, inside a @code{defun},
then the first three would have been equivalent to @code{nil} and the
last four would have been equivalent to the corresponding @code{setq}s.

Note that @code{(eval-when (load eval) @dots{})} is equivalent
to @code{(progn @dots{})} in all contexts.  The compiler treats
certain top-level forms, like @code{defmacro} (sort-of) and
@code{require}, as if they were wrapped in @code{(eval-when
(compile load eval) @dots{})}.
@end defspec

Emacs includes two special forms related to @code{eval-when}.
One of these, @code{eval-when-compile}, is not quite equivalent to
any @code{eval-when} construct and is described below.

The other form, @code{(eval-and-compile @dots{})}, is exactly
equivalent to @samp{(eval-when (compile load eval) @dots{})} and
so is not itself defined by this package.

@defspec eval-when-compile forms...
The @var{forms} are evaluated at compile-time; at execution time,
this form acts like a quoted constant of the resulting value.  Used
at top-level, @code{eval-when-compile} is just like @samp{eval-when
(compile eval)}.  In other contexts, @code{eval-when-compile}
allows code to be evaluated once at compile-time for efficiency
or other reasons.

This form is similar to the @samp{#.} syntax of true Common Lisp.
@end defspec

@defspec load-time-value form
The @var{form} is evaluated at load-time; at execution time,
this form acts like a quoted constant of the resulting value.

Early Common Lisp had a @samp{#,} syntax that was similar to
this, but ANSI Common Lisp replaced it with @code{load-time-value}
and gave it more well-defined semantics.

In a compiled file, @code{load-time-value} arranges for @var{form}
to be evaluated when the @file{.elc} file is loaded and then used
as if it were a quoted constant.  In code compiled by
@code{byte-compile} rather than @code{byte-compile-file}, the
effect is identical to @code{eval-when-compile}.  In uncompiled
code, both @code{eval-when-compile} and @code{load-time-value}
act exactly like @code{progn}.

@example
(defun report ()
  (insert "This function was executed on: "
          (current-time-string)
          ", compiled on: "
          (eval-when-compile (current-time-string))
          ;; or '#.(current-time-string) in real Common Lisp
          ", and loaded on: "
          (load-time-value (current-time-string))))
@end example

@noindent
Byte-compiled, the above defun will result in the following code
(or its compiled equivalent, of course) in the @file{.elc} file:

@example
(setq --temp-- (current-time-string))
(defun report ()
  (insert "This function was executed on: "
          (current-time-string)
          ", compiled on: "
          '"Wed Jun 23 18:33:43 1993"
          ", and loaded on: "
          --temp--))
@end example
@end defspec

@node Predicates, Control Structure, Program Structure, Top
@chapter Predicates

@noindent
This section describes functions for testing whether various
facts are true or false.

@menu
* Type Predicates::      `typep', `deftype', and `coerce'
* Equality Predicates::  `equalp'
@end menu

@node Type Predicates, Equality Predicates, Predicates, Predicates
@section Type Predicates

@noindent
The @dfn{CL} package defines a version of the Common Lisp @code{typep}
predicate.

@defun typep object type
Check if @var{object} is of type @var{type}, where @var{type} is a
(quoted) type name of the sort used by Common Lisp.  For example,
@code{(typep foo 'integer)} is equivalent to @code{(integerp foo)}.
@end defun

The @var{type} argument to the above function is either a symbol
or a list beginning with a symbol.

@itemize @bullet
@item
If the type name is a symbol, Emacs appends @samp{-p} to the
symbol name to form the name of a predicate function for testing
the type.  (Built-in predicates whose names end in @samp{p} rather
than @samp{-p} are used when appropriate.)

@item
The type symbol @code{t} stands for the union of all types.
@code{(typep @var{object} t)} is always true.  Likewise, the
type symbol @code{nil} stands for nothing at all, and
@code{(typep @var{object} nil)} is always false.

@item
The type symbol @code{null} represents the symbol @code{nil}.
Thus @code{(typep @var{object} 'null)} is equivalent to
@code{(null @var{object})}.

@item
The type symbol @code{atom} represents all objects that are not cons
cells. Thus @code{(typep @var{object} 'atom)} is equivalent to
@code{(atom @var{object})}.

@item
The type symbol @code{real} is a synonym for @code{number}, and
@code{fixnum} is a synonym for @code{integer}.

@item
The type symbols @code{character} and @code{string-char} match
integers in the range from 0 to 255.

@item
The type symbol @code{float} uses the @code{floatp-safe} predicate
defined by this package rather than @code{floatp}, so it will work
correctly even in Emacs versions without floating-point support.

@item
The type list @code{(integer @var{low} @var{high})} represents all
integers between @var{low} and @var{high}, inclusive.  Either bound
may be a list of a single integer to specify an exclusive limit,
or a @code{*} to specify no limit.  The type @code{(integer * *)}
is thus equivalent to @code{integer}.

@item
Likewise, lists beginning with @code{float}, @code{real}, or
@code{number} represent numbers of that type falling in a particular
range.

@item
Lists beginning with @code{and}, @code{or}, and @code{not} form
combinations of types.  For example, @code{(or integer (float 0 *))}
represents all objects that are integers or non-negative floats.

@item
Lists beginning with @code{member} or @code{member*} represent
objects @code{eql} to any of the following values.  For example,
@code{(member 1 2 3 4)} is equivalent to @code{(integer 1 4)},
and @code{(member nil)} is equivalent to @code{null}.

@item
Lists of the form @code{(satisfies @var{predicate})} represent
all objects for which @var{predicate} returns true when called
with that object as an argument.
@end itemize

The following function and macro (not technically predicates) are
related to @code{typep}.

@defun coerce object type
This function attempts to convert @var{object} to the specified
@var{type}.  If @var{object} is already of that type as determined by
@code{typep}, it is simply returned.  Otherwise, certain types of
conversions will be made:  If @var{type} is any sequence type
(@code{string}, @code{list}, etc.) then @var{object} will be
converted to that type if possible.  If @var{type} is
@code{character}, then strings of length one and symbols with
one-character names can be coerced.  If @var{type} is @code{float},
then integers can be coerced in versions of Emacs that support
floats.  In all other circumstances, @code{coerce} signals an
error.
@end defun

@defspec deftype name arglist forms...
This macro defines a new type called @var{name}.  It is similar
to @code{defmacro} in many ways; when @var{name} is encountered
as a type name, the body @var{forms} are evaluated and should
return a type specifier that is equivalent to the type.  The
@var{arglist} is a Common Lisp argument list of the sort accepted
by @code{defmacro*}.  The type specifier @samp{(@var{name} @var{args}...)}
is expanded by calling the expander with those arguments; the type
symbol @samp{@var{name}} is expanded by calling the expander with
no arguments.  The @var{arglist} is processed the same as for
@code{defmacro*} except that optional arguments without explicit
defaults use @code{*} instead of @code{nil} as the ``default''
default.  Some examples:

@example
(deftype null () '(satisfies null))    ; predefined
(deftype list () '(or null cons))      ; predefined
(deftype unsigned-byte (&optional bits)
  (list 'integer 0 (if (eq bits '*) bits (1- (lsh 1 bits)))))
(unsigned-byte 8)  @equiv{}  (integer 0 255)
(unsigned-byte)  @equiv{}  (integer 0 *)
unsigned-byte  @equiv{}  (integer 0 *)
@end example

@noindent
The last example shows how the Common Lisp @code{unsigned-byte}
type specifier could be implemented if desired; this package does
not implement @code{unsigned-byte} by default.
@end defspec

The @code{typecase} and @code{check-type} macros also use type
names.  @xref{Conditionals}.  @xref{Assertions}.  The @code{map},
@code{concatenate}, and @code{merge} functions take type-name
arguments to specify the type of sequence to return.  @xref{Sequences}.

@node Equality Predicates,  , Type Predicates, Predicates
@section Equality Predicates

@noindent
This package defines the Common Lisp predicate @code{equalp}.

@defun equalp a b
This function is a more flexible version of @code{equal}.  In
particular, it compares strings case-insensitively, and it compares
numbers without regard to type (so that @code{(equalp 3 3.0)} is
true).  Vectors and conses are compared recursively.  All other
objects are compared as if by @code{equal}.

This function differs from Common Lisp @code{equalp} in several
respects.  First, Common Lisp's @code{equalp} also compares
@emph{characters} case-insensitively, which would be impractical
in this package since Emacs does not distinguish between integers
and characters.  In keeping with the idea that strings are less
vector-like in Emacs Lisp, this package's @code{equalp} also will
not compare strings against vectors of integers.
@end defun

Also note that the Common Lisp functions @code{member} and @code{assoc}
use @code{eql} to compare elements, whereas Emacs Lisp follows the
MacLisp tradition and uses @code{equal} for these two functions.
In Emacs, use @code{member*} and @code{assoc*} to get functions
which use @code{eql} for comparisons.

@node Control Structure, Macros, Predicates, Top
@chapter Control Structure

@noindent
The features described in the following sections implement
various advanced control structures, including the powerful
@code{setf} facility and a number of looping and conditional
constructs.

@menu
* Assignment::             The `psetq' form
* Generalized Variables::  `setf', `incf', `push', etc.
* Variable Bindings::      `progv', `lexical-let', `flet', `macrolet'
* Conditionals::           `case', `typecase'
* Blocks and Exits::       `block', `return', `return-from'
* Iteration::              `do', `dotimes', `dolist', `do-symbols'
* Loop Facility::          The Common Lisp `loop' macro
* Multiple Values::        `values', `multiple-value-bind', etc.
@end menu

@node Assignment, Generalized Variables, Control Structure, Control Structure
@section Assignment

@noindent
The @code{psetq} form is just like @code{setq}, except that multiple
assignments are done in parallel rather than sequentially.

@defspec psetq [symbol form]@dots{}
This special form (actually a macro) is used to assign to several
variables simultaneously.  Given only one @var{symbol} and @var{form},
it has the same effect as @code{setq}.  Given several @var{symbol}
and @var{form} pairs, it evaluates all the @var{form}s in advance
and then stores the corresponding variables afterwards.

@example
(setq x 2 y 3)
(setq x (+ x y)  y (* x y))
x
     @result{} 5
y                     ; @r{@code{y} was computed after @code{x} was set.}
     @result{} 15
(setq x 2 y 3)
(psetq x (+ x y)  y (* x y))
x
     @result{} 5
y                     ; @r{@code{y} was computed before @code{x} was set.}
     @result{} 6
@end example

The simplest use of @code{psetq} is @code{(psetq x y y x)}, which
exchanges the values of two variables.  (The @code{rotatef} form
provides an even more convenient way to swap two variables;
@pxref{Modify Macros}.)

@code{psetq} always returns @code{nil}.
@end defspec

@node Generalized Variables, Variable Bindings, Assignment, Control Structure
@section Generalized Variables

@noindent
A ``generalized variable'' or ``place form'' is one of the many places
in Lisp memory where values can be stored.  The simplest place form is
a regular Lisp variable.  But the cars and cdrs of lists, elements
of arrays, properties of symbols, and many other locations are also
places where Lisp values are stored.

The @code{setf} form is like @code{setq}, except that it accepts
arbitrary place forms on the left side rather than just
symbols.  For example, @code{(setf (car a) b)} sets the car of
@code{a} to @code{b}, doing the same operation as @code{(setcar a b)}
but without having to remember two separate functions for setting
and accessing every type of place.

Generalized variables are analogous to ``lvalues'' in the C
language, where @samp{x = a[i]} gets an element from an array
and @samp{a[i] = x} stores an element using the same notation.
Just as certain forms like @code{a[i]} can be lvalues in C, there
is a set of forms that can be generalized variables in Lisp.

@menu
* Basic Setf::         `setf' and place forms
* Modify Macros::      `incf', `push', `rotatef', `letf', `callf', etc.
* Customizing Setf::   `define-modify-macro', `defsetf', `define-setf-method'
@end menu

@node Basic Setf, Modify Macros, Generalized Variables, Generalized Variables
@subsection Basic Setf

@noindent
The @code{setf} macro is the most basic way to operate on generalized
variables.

@defspec setf [place form]@dots{}
This macro evaluates @var{form} and stores it in @var{place}, which
must be a valid generalized variable form.  If there are several
@var{place} and @var{form} pairs, the assignments are done sequentially
just as with @code{setq}.  @code{setf} returns the value of the last
@var{form}.

The following Lisp forms will work as generalized variables, and
so may appear in the @var{place} argument of @code{setf}:

@itemize @bullet
@item
A symbol naming a variable.  In other words, @code{(setf x y)} is
exactly equivalent to @code{(setq x y)}, and @code{setq} itself is
strictly speaking redundant now that @code{setf} exists.  Many
programmers continue to prefer @code{setq} for setting simple
variables, though, purely for stylistic or historical reasons.
The macro @code{(setf x y)} actually expands to @code{(setq x y)},
so there is no performance penalty for using it in compiled code.

@item
A call to any of the following Lisp functions:

@smallexample
car                 cdr                 caar .. cddddr
nth                 rest                first .. tenth
aref                elt                 nthcdr
symbol-function     symbol-value        symbol-plist
get                 get*                getf
gethash             subseq
@end smallexample

@noindent
Note that for @code{nthcdr} and @code{getf}, the list argument
of the function must itself be a valid @var{place} form.  For
example, @code{(setf (nthcdr 0 foo) 7)} will set @code{foo} itself
to 7.  Note that @code{push} and @code{pop} on an @code{nthcdr}
place can be used to insert or delete at any position in a list.
The use of @code{nthcdr} as a @var{place} form is an extension
to standard Common Lisp.

@item
The following Emacs-specific functions are also @code{setf}-able.

@smallexample
buffer-file-name                  marker-position
buffer-modified-p                 match-data
buffer-name                       mouse-position
buffer-string                     overlay-end
buffer-substring                  overlay-get
current-buffer                    overlay-start
current-case-table                point
current-column                    point-marker
current-global-map                point-max
current-input-mode                point-min
current-local-map                 process-buffer
current-window-configuration      process-filter
default-file-modes                process-sentinel
default-value                     read-mouse-position
documentation-property            screen-height
extent-data                       screen-menubar
extent-end-position               screen-width
extent-start-position             selected-window
face-background                   selected-screen
face-background-pixmap            selected-frame
face-font                         standard-case-table
face-foreground                   syntax-table
face-underline-p                  window-buffer
file-modes                        window-dedicated-p
frame-height                      window-display-table
frame-parameters                  window-height
frame-visible-p                   window-hscroll
frame-width                       window-point
get-register                      window-start
getenv                            window-width
global-key-binding                x-get-cut-buffer
keymap-parent                     x-get-cutbuffer
local-key-binding                 x-get-secondary-selection
mark                              x-get-selection
mark-marker
@end smallexample

Most of these have directly corresponding ``set'' functions, like
@code{use-local-map} for @code{current-local-map}, or @code{goto-char}
for @code{point}.  A few, like @code{point-min}, expand to longer
sequences of code when they are @code{setf}'d (@code{(narrow-to-region
x (point-max))} in this case).

@item
A call of the form @code{(substring @var{subplace} @var{n} [@var{m}])},
where @var{subplace} is itself a valid generalized variable whose
current value is a string, and where the value stored is also a
string.  The new string is spliced into the specified part of the
destination string.  For example:

@example
(setq a (list "hello" "world"))
     @result{} ("hello" "world")
(cadr a)
     @result{} "world"
(substring (cadr a) 2 4)
     @result{} "rl"
(setf (substring (cadr a) 2 4) "o")
     @result{} "o"
(cadr a)
     @result{} "wood"
a
     @result{} ("hello" "wood")
@end example

The generalized variable @code{buffer-substring}, listed above,
also works in this way by replacing a portion of the current buffer.

@item
A call of the form @code{(apply '@var{func} @dots{})} or
@code{(apply (function @var{func}) @dots{})}, where @var{func}
is a @code{setf}-able function whose store function is ``suitable''
in the sense described in Steele's book; since none of the standard
Emacs place functions are suitable in this sense, this feature is
only interesting when used with places you define yourself with
@code{define-setf-method} or the long form of @code{defsetf}.

@item
A macro call, in which case the macro is expanded and @code{setf}
is applied to the resulting form.

@item
Any form for which a @code{defsetf} or @code{define-setf-method}
has been made.
@end itemize

Using any forms other than these in the @var{place} argument to
@code{setf} will signal an error.

The @code{setf} macro takes care to evaluate all subforms in
the proper left-to-right order; for example,

@example
(setf (aref vec (incf i)) i)
@end example

@noindent
looks like it will evaluate @code{(incf i)} exactly once, before the
following access to @code{i}; the @code{setf} expander will insert
temporary variables as necessary to ensure that it does in fact work
this way no matter what setf-method is defined for @code{aref}.
(In this case, @code{aset} would be used and no such steps would
be necessary since @code{aset} takes its arguments in a convenient
order.)

However, if the @var{place} form is a macro which explicitly
evaluates its arguments in an unusual order, this unusual order
will be preserved.  Adapting an example from Steele, given

@example
(defmacro wrong-order (x y) (list 'aref y x))
@end example

@noindent
the form @code{(setf (wrong-order @var{a} @var{b}) 17)} will
evaluate @var{b} first, then @var{a}, just as in an actual call
to @code{wrong-order}.
@end defspec

@node Modify Macros, Customizing Setf, Basic Setf, Generalized Variables
@subsection Modify Macros

@noindent
This package defines a number of other macros besides @code{setf}
that operate on generalized variables.  Many are interesting and
useful even when the @var{place} is just a variable name.

@defspec psetf [place form]@dots{}
This macro is to @code{setf} what @code{psetq} is to @code{setq}:
When several @var{place}s and @var{form}s are involved, the
assignments take place in parallel rather than sequentially.
Specifically, all subforms are evaluated from left to right, then
all the assignments are done (in an undefined order).
@end defspec

@defspec incf place &optional x
This macro increments the number stored in @var{place} by one, or
by @var{x} if specified.  The incremented value is returned.  For
example, @code{(incf i)} is equivalent to @code{(setq i (1+ i))}, and
@code{(incf (car x) 2)} is equivalent to @code{(setcar x (+ (car x) 2))}.

Once again, care is taken to preserve the ``apparent'' order of
evaluation.  For example,

@example
(incf (aref vec (incf i)))
@end example

@noindent
appears to increment @code{i} once, then increment the element of
@code{vec} addressed by @code{i}; this is indeed exactly what it
does, which means the above form is @emph{not} equivalent to the
``obvious'' expansion,

@example
(setf (aref vec (incf i)) (1+ (aref vec (incf i))))   ; Wrong!
@end example

@noindent
but rather to something more like

@example
(let ((temp (incf i)))
  (setf (aref vec temp) (1+ (aref vec temp))))
@end example

@noindent
Again, all of this is taken care of automatically by @code{incf} and
the other generalized-variable macros.

As a more Emacs-specific example of @code{incf}, the expression
@code{(incf (point) @var{n})} is essentially equivalent to
@code{(forward-char @var{n})}.
@end defspec

@defspec decf place &optional x
This macro decrements the number stored in @var{place} by one, or
by @var{x} if specified.
@end defspec

@defspec pop place
This macro removes and returns the first element of the list stored
in @var{place}.  It is analogous to @code{(prog1 (car @var{place})
(setf @var{place} (cdr @var{place})))}, except that it takes care
to evaluate all subforms only once.
@end defspec

@defspec push x place
This macro inserts @var{x} at the front of the list stored in
@var{place}.  It is analogous to @code{(setf @var{place} (cons
@var{x} @var{place}))}, except